Dr. Aedín McLoughlin:

I will deal with the vertical drilling. When a drill operates, it will of course go through sand. The operators put a "slick" fluid in with the drill to reduce friction and as the drill operates, the mud comes up. A steel tube would then be inserted, with concrete used to bond it to whatever rock is there. I mentioned there is a problem with the bond. The middle is clear, with no sand. The same applies to the horizontal drill process. When the operators begin fracturing, they push down water containing sand, and to keep the sand in the water they use a gelling substance. That is forced through the shale and keeps the fractures open.